Historians state that the oldest medium of communication should be credited to the primitive people of Paleolithic era. A good example is a cave painting in Lascaux, France. This particular sample which dates back about 14,000 B.C, contains some illustrations of wild animals and hunters thus shows how crucial is visual communication in human survival.
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| Fig. 2 |
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In general there are three important stages of evolution in regards to graphic communication
- Pictogram (eg.Cunieform)
- Ideogram (eg.Hieroglyphic)
- Phonogram (eg.Phonecian)
Pictogram
A pictogram (pictograph) is a simple drawing which features familiar daily objects. It is believed that Cuneiform is one of the earliest pictogram used in ancient civilisation. Cuneiform is a unique scripture which can be distinguished by its wedge marks on a clay tablet Fig.3. Cuneiform was developed in Sumeria (a region which is now present day, Iraq) in the late 4th millennium B.C.E. Cunieform evolved from pictogram into a complex yet systematic communication system. In spite of this, Cuneiform is not a verbal language instead it is only meant to represent the object. For instance a drawing of a head literally means a head as shown in Fig. 5.
Ideogram
An ideogram is a simple drawing which also features familiar daily objects. The only difference is that it is often combined with two or more objects in order to convey meaning. For example a drawing of a human (Fig.6) with a bow juxtaposed next to a half circle with a horizontal line thus suggest a meaning about a hunter coming home in the evening . An example of ideogram can be seen in Hieroglyphic scripture (Fig. 7) that was used during ancient Egyptian about 3100 BCE to 400 CE. Historians believe that Hieroglyphic scripture was not specifically used by royals or for religious purpose but also by the locals in their daily communication.
Phonogram
A Phonogram is a modern written communication system. Basically it features symbols that resemble modern alphabet letters. Unlike previous ancient scripture, each phonogram symbols represent vowel and consonant sound. When certain symbols (letters) are combined, it will produce word (visual) and sound (verbal) which then suggest idea (meaning). For example the word "Water" is a combination of 2 vowel letters (A &E) and 3 consonant letters (W,T&R) which then help reader to identify the subject. An example of Phonogram can be seen in the Phonecian alphabet which originated from a region called Phonecia (Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon & Israel) about 1500 B.C. A unique thing about Phonecian script is that it has its root in both pictogram and ideogram. For example, Fig.8 is a picture of an Ox head which is called "Aleph" in Phonecian language. It is then stylised into a simpler shape while retaining the original name "Aleph" and the vowel sound "A" (Fig.9). Phonecian alphabet eventually was developed and used by the Greek and the Roman and it is now recognized as the common medium of writing in the modern world.
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Fig. 10
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Printing era
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Perhaps the most revolutionary invention in the history of graphic communication would be the production of paper from China. Paper as we already know has already been used during ancient Egyptian era. However in China, the production of paper is much more relevant because it eventually leads to the development of modern printing. A Chinese man named Ts Ai Lun (Fig. 11) was the first person who invented paper. His contribution has made possible for the production of old manuscripts such as the "Diamond Sutra" book, printed in China in 868 AD and paper money in 806 AD to replace gold and silver coin. In 1041 AD, woodblock print was introduced. This printing method is simple since it only uses a woodblock with relief carving on its surface, oil based ink and paper (Fig. 12).
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| Fig. 12 |
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Fig. 13
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Unfortunately, woodblock printing technique is time consuming mainly because it requires highly skilled craftsman. Hence another Chinese inventor named Bi Sheng (990-1051 AD), introduced a method called movable clay type. Instead of carving the whole wooden block, Bi Sheng (Fig. 13) created individual casting mold (with Chinese script letter relief) which he then used to pour wet clay in it. When the clay is dry, it can be easily assembled in a block frame and ready for printing. If there is a need to produce a different document, the movable clay type (Fig. 14) can be reassembled again. In spite of this, Bi Sheng's printing technique was considered uneconomical because the movable clay type is fragile and often crack due to heavy pressure. Woodblock on the other hand is much more durable and cheap. As a result, woodblock print technique continues to dominate the printing industry in China.
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| Fig. 14 |
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Renaissance Era
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| Fig. 15 |
Historians argue that even though movable clay type from China possesses some technical flaws, nevertheless its concept is considered brilliant thus has inspired European inventors. At this point a German goldsmith named Johannes Gutenberg (Fig. 15), from Mainz, Germany, invented the printing press with replaceable/moveable metal type (Fig. 16) in 1436 (completed by 1440). Gutenberg also converted a wine presser (Fig. 17) which was commonly found in his hometown, into a printing machine. This method can be credited not only for a revolution in the production of books such as the Gutenberg' bible (Fig. 18), but also for fostering rapid development in the sciences, arts and religion through the transmission of texts.
Industrial Revolution (18th-19th Century)
Considering the achievement made by Johannes Gutenberg, there is no doubt that he should be remembered as the father of graphic design. His revolutionary invention of movable metal type and printing machine have brought countless benefit to the field of graphic communication. As the world entered the age of industrial revolution, printing press became more sophisticated. Around this time, mechanical elements are introduced to increase efficiency. For example the Stanhope press (1840) is made of iron. Historian state that its design is suitable for printing multiple copies as it can print much faster than the old Gutenberg's printer. In 1867, a portable printer called the typewriter was introduced by Christopher Latham Sholes. Unlike others, this particular machine is small and can be operated by a single person (Fig. 20) thus suitable for small businesses. Then in 1887, a machince called the Linotype was introduced. Designed by Ottmar Merghenthaler, Linotype is electrically powered which means it can minimize human labor and
maximize production. Electrical powered machine eventually become
the important mean that shape the next generation of printing press machine.
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Computer Age (21st Century)
The arrival of personal computer (PC) in the early 70s has changed how we work, communicate and think. According to source, In 1938, Chester Carlson invented a dry printing process called electrophotography (Photocopy machine) commonly called a Xerox 914. This invention leads to the foundation technology for laser printers to come. In 1953, the first high-speed printer was developed by Remington-Rand for use on the Univac computer (Fig. 23). In 1969 the first laser printer was developed by Gary Starkweather of Xerox, who adapted Xerox’s copier technology by adding a laser beam to it to produce the first laser printer. The first xerographic laser printer was released in 1977, the Xerox 9700 Electronic Printing System (Fig.24). In 1984,Hewlett Packard introduced its first ink jet printer called Thinkjet. This model became popular because it is small and suitable for small business and home user.
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| Fig. 25 |
References
Cramsie, P. (2010). The Story of Graphic Design. London: The British Library
Norman, J. (2015). The first completely Iron Printing Press. History of Information. com retrieved Jan 2015, from http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=501
Bellis, M. (n.d). History of Computer Printer. About.com. Retrieved Jan 2015, from http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blcomputer_printers.htm
A brief History of the printer (2014). Sprint-ink. Retrieved Jan 2015, from http://www.sprint-ink.co.uk/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-printer
Shapiro, Ezra (April 1984). " Stylish Output" BYTE. p. 82. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
Printers (2004).HP Computer Museum.Retrieved Jan 2015 from http://www.hpmuseum.net/exhibit.php?class=5&cat=20
